Excalibur: the Legend & History

Excalibur: the legendary sword of King Arthur, which became a symbol of power and divine destiny. Discover its history and significance. The article also analyzes its Celtic roots, medieval literary sources, and historical contexts, unveiling the evolution and origins of this extraordinary legend.

 

 

 

The Legend and Historical Context of Excalibur

 

 Introduction
Excalibur, the legendary sword of King Arthur, stands as one of the most iconic symbols of medieval mythology, in part due to its dual narrative roles as both a test of kingship and a conduit of supernatural power. Unlike other legendary swords such as Durendal or Joyeuse, Excalibur embodies the intertwining of human authority and divine sanction, making it a unique cultural and literary touchstone. Rooted in the Arthurian legends, it has transcended time to become a cultural and literary touchstone. This study delves into the origins, historical context, and symbolic significance of Excalibur, as well as its depiction in medieval manuscripts, possible historical inspirations, and modern interpretations.

 

 

 Etymology and Name Variants
The name 'Excalibur' derives from the Old French Escalibor, which itself is a transliteration of the Latin Caliburnus. The name first appeared in medieval literature in Chrétien de Troyes' Romance of Percival (Perceval, ou le Conte du Graal) around 1180, cementing its place in the Arthurian mythos as a symbol of divine kingship and legendary power. These names are believed to trace back to the Welsh Caledfwlch, a compound of caled (hard) and bwlc[h] (breach, cleft). In Irish mythology, a similar sword named Caladbolg appears, linking Excalibur to earlier Celtic traditions. These linguistic variations suggest a pan-Celtic origin, blending mythological motifs of indestructibility and divine authority. For example, in Irish mythology, the sword Caladbolg was said to possess immense destructive power, capable of cutting the tops off hills. Similarly, the Welsh Dyrnwyn, a sword that burned with fire when wielded by a noble, embodies themes of exclusivity and supernatural strength. These parallels reinforce the hypothesis that Excalibur draws on a shared Celtic tradition of enchanted weapons that signify both martial prowess and divine favor.

 

 

 Historical Context and Roman Influences
While King Arthur is typically associated with the medieval period, several historians argue that the historical Arthur, if he existed, may have lived during the late Roman or early post-Roman era (5th-6th centuries). This hypothesis suggests that Arthur could have been a Romano-British military leader, defending Britain from Saxon invasions after the Roman withdrawal. Notably, figures such as Ambrosius Aurelianus and the events chronicled in Gildas’ De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae provide historical context for such a leader. The Battle of Badon, often associated with Arthur in later legends, is another potential historical anchor for this hypothesis.

A potential Roman identity for Arthur may explain the use of swords like the gladius or spatha, weapons prevalent among Roman soldiers. If Excalibur were based on such a weapon, its description in early texts as a long, effective blade aligns with the characteristics of a spatha. The transformation of Arthur’s name from a possible Roman origin—such as Artorius or Artus—into its medieval form reflects the blending of Roman and Celtic cultural influences.

 

 

 Excalibur in the Arthurian Legends
Excalibur’s role in Arthurian legend is twofold. In some traditions, it is the sword drawn from the stone, signifying Arthur’s divine right to rule. In others, it is bestowed upon him by the Lady of the Lake, symbolizing a mystical connection between the king and the land. These dual narratives underscore the sword’s symbolic role as both a mark of legitimacy and a conduit of supernatural power.

The Vulgate Cycle (13th century) and Le Morte d’Arthur (1485) by Sir Thomas Malory provide rich accounts of Excalibur’s role. While the Vulgate Cycle emphasizes the sword’s mystical origin and its connection to the Lady of the Lake, Malory’s work focuses on its symbolic role in Arthur’s legitimacy as king. Notably, Malory expands on the scabbard’s protective powers, which are less detailed in the earlier texts, highlighting the evolving narrative focus on both the weapon and its accessories. In these texts, Excalibur is described as having an unparalleled sharpness and radiance, with a scabbard that grants its bearer invulnerability. These qualities enhance its stature as a weapon of divine origin.

 

 

 Early Depictions in Manuscripts
The earliest visual depictions of Excalibur appear in illuminated manuscripts of the Vulgate Cycle, dating to the early 14th century. One notable manuscript, housed in the British Library and dated to circa 1316, depicts Arthur drawing the sword from the stone. The sword is illustrated with a slender blade, a simple crossguard, and a rounded pommel, consistent with the stylistic conventions of the time.

Another example, from the Prose Tristan (14th century), shows Excalibur in the hands of the Lady of the Lake. These depictions prioritize narrative clarity over intricate details of the weapon, reflecting its symbolic rather than functional significance in the legends.

 

 

 Excalibut as a real sword in history

There have been swords throughout history that have been attributed to the legendary Excalibur, although these were more symbolic than real. Here are a few examples:

 1. 'French Excalibur' (Saint Galgano's sword)
It is located in the Montesiepi Abbey in Tuscany, Italy. The sword embedded in the rock is attributed to Saint Galgano Guidotti, who is said to have placed it there in the 12th century as a symbol of his spiritual transformation.
- Reality: Analysis dates the sword to the 12th century, consistent with the life of Saint Galgano, but there is no evidence of any connection to Excalibur beyond the similarities in legend.

 2. Joyeuse – The Sword of Charlemagne
Hoarded in the Louvre in Paris, Joyeuse is sometimes compared to Excalibur due to its royal symbolism and supposed miraculous properties.
- Reality: Although associated with Charlemagne, Joyeuse is more of a symbol of royal power than an artifact associated with Arthurian legend.

 3. The Sarmatian Blade in the Context of Britain
Some theories link Excalibur to Sarmatian swords brought to Britain by Roman mercenaries. Such swords were ceremonial in nature and may have inspired medieval tales of the legendary sword.
- Reality: No specific artifacts identified as Excalibur, but the possibility of historical inspiration is acknowledged by scholars.

 4. Sword of St. Maurice
This sword, a symbol of holy knighthood and divine power, was used in the coronations of Holy Roman Emperors.
- Reality: There is no evidence of a direct connection to Excalibur, but similarities in function and symbolism are apparent.
 5. Swords Discovered in Rivers and Swamps
Swords found in Europe ritually thrown into water, in accordance with Celtic traditions, may have inspired tales of Excalibur being given by the Lady of the Lake.
- Reality: Archaeologists have found many such swords, but none have direct links to the legend.

 Summary
There is no sword that can be identified with certainty as the historical Excalibur. Swords attributed to this legend typically served as symbolic references to the stories of King Arthur or were used to build upon local traditions and legends.

 

 

 Modern Interpretations and Cultural Legacy
Excalibur has been a focal point in literature, art, and film. One of the most influential modern portrayals is in John Boorman’s film Excalibur (1981), where the sword symbolizes Arthur’s destiny and the unity of Britain. Its depiction as a luminous, almost otherworldly weapon underscores its mystical origins.

In literature, T.H. White’s The Once and Future King (1958) reimagines Excalibur as a magical object imbued with ethical dilemmas about leadership and power. These modern adaptations maintain the core elements of the legend while reinterpreting its themes for contemporary audiences.

 

 

 Historical and Archaeological Connections
While Excalibur remains a legendary object, it may have roots in historical artifacts. The swords of the Sarmatian cavalry, stationed in Roman Britain, are sometimes cited as potential inspirations due to their ceremonial use and ornate designs. Similarly, the 'Sword of St. Maurice' in Switzerland, an ancient weapon associated with divine authority, has been linked to the Arthurian concept of a holy sword.

 

 

 Conclusion
Excalibur’s enduring legacy lies in its multifaceted symbolism as a mark of kingship, a tool of divine justice, and a connection to the mystical forces of nature. Each phase of Excalibur's evolution contributes uniquely to its enduring legacy. From its Celtic roots, where it symbolizes indestructibility and divine authority, to its medieval literary flourishing as a marker of divine kingship, and finally to its modern reinterpretations that explore ethical and nationalistic themes, Excalibur encapsulates a rich tapestry of cultural significance. These layers of meaning ensure its place as a potent symbol of power and destiny in Western mythology. Its story reflects the evolving cultural values of the societies that have embraced it, ensuring its place as a central icon of Western mythology.

 

Concept and substantive development: Maciej Kopciuch 2024/2025

 

 

 

 

 Literature

1. Primary Sources and Medieval Manuscripts

• Malory, Sir Thomas. Le Morte d'Arthur. 2 vols. Edited by Eugene Vinaver. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990.

• Geoffrey of Monmouth. Historia Regum Britanniae (The History of the Kings of Britain). Translated by Lewis Thorpe. London: Penguin Classics, 1966.

• Chrétien de Troyes. Cligès, Érec et Enide, Lancelot, le Chevalier de la Charrette. Edited by P. J. B. H. Brown. Paris: Société des Anciens Textes Français, 1969.

• The Vulgate Cycle. Lancelot-Grail (The Old French Prose Lancelot). Translated by C. S. Terry. London: Dent, 1934.

• The Winchester Manuscript. The Vulgate Cycle. Edited by Carl D. Benson. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1952-1970.

• The Welsh Triads. The Trioedd Ynys Prydein. Edited by Rachel Bromwich. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1961.

2. Contemporary Research and Scholarly Studies

• Lacy, Norris J. The Arthurian Encyclopedia. 2nd ed. New York: Garland Publishing, 1991.

• Putter, Ad. The Cambridge Companion to the Arthurian Legend. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.

• Cavill, Paul. The Arthurian Legend and the Celts: Studies in the Cultural Influence. London: Routledge, 2010.

• Hudson, John. The Arthurian Legend: A Literary History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016.

• Bromwich, Rachel. The Arthur of the Welsh: The Arthurian Legend in Medieval Welsh Literature. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2006.

3. Archaeological and Historical Studies

• Raine, William. Medieval Weapons and Warfare: The Historical Context of Arthurian Legend. New York: Routledge, 1997.

• Johnson, William H. Swords and Swordsmanship in Medieval Britain. London: The British Museum Press, 2005.

4. Literary Interpretations and Analyses

• J.R.R. Tolkien. The Monsters and the Critics and Other Essays. Edited by Christopher Tolkien. London: HarperCollins, 2006.

• Simek, Rudolf. Dictionary of Northern Mythology. Translated by Angela Hall. Woodbridge, Suffolk: D.S. Brewer, 1993.

• Mackie, Susan. The Magic Sword: A Study of Excalibur in Literature and Mythology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2012.

5. Iconography and Popular Culture Studies

• Huxley, Geoffrey. Excalibur: Myth, History, and Popular Culture. London: Thames & Hudson, 2008.

• Young, Robert. The Legend of King Arthur in Popular Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.

6. Theological and Philosophical Studies

• Lüthi, Max. The European Folktale: Form and Nature. Translated by John D. Niles. New York: Routledge, 1986.

• Ziegler, Joseph. The Sacred Sword: Symbolism of Excalibur in the Medieval Christian Context. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.